Hack tech fact

Formation of Alloy:     -An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of a metal and a non metal. Transition metals from alloys very easily because of the transition metal are quite similar and they can mutually substitute for one another in Crystal lattice . Molten transition metals are mutually miscible in one another forming an alloy on cooling               For example , stainless steel is an alloy of Fe , Ni and Cr ,  brass is an alloy of Cu and Zn , 

Melting and boiling points :  Transition elements , have high melting and boiling point as compared to normal element . The malting and boiling point , however increase and decrease to a maximum value (elements with five unpaired electron) and then falls as the atomic numbers increase in a series . This is due to the strong metallic bond between their atom . As the strength of metallic bond depend upon the number of unpaired electron (or, half field d-orbitals)5, the number of unpaired electron increase upto d configuration (e.g. , Cr in the first series ) and then decrease upto d configuration (e.g., Zn in the first series) and therefore , the melting point and boiling point increase upto Cr and then decrease to Zn , Cd , and Hg, all the d- orbital are completely failed , no electrons are available for co-valent bonding (metal bonding) amongst the atoms of these elements. Thus , these elements have very low melting point and boiling point in their respective transition series.

Transition series: There are four transition series - 1- First transition series contain 10 elements from scandium (at.no.21) to Zinc (at.no.30). They have incompletely 3d orbitals. 2- Second transition series contain 10 elements , from Yttrium (at.no.39) to cadmium (at .no . 48 ) they have incomplete 4d - orbitals . 3- Third transition series include 10 elements with incomplete 5 d - orbitals . These are Lanthanum (at . no . 80) . 4- Fourth transition series . This series is not complete and has incompletely filled f - electrons . This consist of lanthanides and actinides are identified below under f - block elements.

What are transition element:    The elements occupying the position in the middle of the periodic table whose inner d-or f- orbitals are not completely filled are called transition elements. The transition element is one whose atom or at least one of its ions has incompletely filled d-or,f-orbitals. In case of transition elements, it's atom or simple ion contains 1 to 9 electrons in d - orbitals or 1 to 13 electrons in f-orbitals. Transition elements (d-or f-block elements) present between s - and p - block elements. Thus, it follows that the elements undergoing change of state from highly  electro positive elements (metals) of s - block to highly electronegative elements (non - metals) of p - block .

What are F - Block Elements - F - block elements are consist of Lanthanides and Actinides. In Lanthanides, they are 14 element immediately following Lanthanum (57) from cerium (58) to lutecium (71) . These 14 element are called Lanthanides . These Lanthanides belong to first inner transition series .           In Actinides , these are also 14 elements immediately following Actinium (89) starting from Thorium (90) to lawrencium (103) . The element from Th (90) to Lr (103) are called Actinides . They belong to second inner transition series.

Electronic configuration of the                 Actinides -  i - Electronic configuration of the Actinides are not always easy to confirm because of some factors these are : 1- Atomic spectra of the heavy element are very difficult to interrupt in terms of configuration competition between  5fn7s² and 5fn–¹ 6ds² configuration is of interest. 2- For early Actinides , promotion 5f -> 6d occurs to provide more bonding electrons . Much easier than the corresponding 4f -> 5d promotion in Lanthanides . 3- Second half of Actinides series resemble lanthanides more closely . ii - 5f orbital have greater extension with respect to 7s and 7p than do 4f relatively to 6s and 6p orbital . iii - 5f , 6d , 7s and 7p orbitals are of comparable energies over a range of atomic numbers .          especially U - Am . iv - Tendency towards variable valence. v - Greater tendency towards complex formation including complexation with π- bonding ligands. vi - Electronic structure of an element in a given o

Common properties of the Actinides : 1- All isotopes of all the Actinides are radioactive due to instability. 2- All the Actinides are unstable and reactive due to atomic number above 83 (nuclear stability) . 3- Majority are synthetically made by particle accelerations. 4- All have a silvery or silvery white lustre in metallic form. 5- All have the ability to form stable complexes with ligands, such as chloride , sulphate , carbonate and acetate. 6- many of the Actinides occur in sea water or minerals. 7- The Actinides undergo nuclear reactions. 8- The emission of radioactive , toxicity , pyrophoric (ignite at room temperature in a finely divided sate) and nuclear criticality (when combine with fissionable materials, chain reaction occur resulting in lethaldos of radioactive) make the Actinides hazardous to handle.

The Actinides The actinides series element with atomic numbers 89 to 103 and it is the third group in the periodic table . The series is the row below the lanthanides series (shown earlier), which is placed underneath the main body of the periodic table .             Lanthanides and Actinides series are both referred to as Rare earth metals . These  elements are radioactive. The most common and known element is uranium mineral , which is used as nuclear fuel when it is convert into plutonium through a nuclear reaction.   The first Actinides to be discovered were uranium mineral by Klaproth in 1789 and Thorium by Berzelius in 1829 , but most of the Actinides were man - made products of the 20th century .   Actinium and protactinium occur only in trace amounts in nature as decay products of 253 - Uranium and 238 - Uranium  . Microscopic amount of plutonium are made by neutron capture by Uranium , and yet occurs naturally . Monazite is the principal Thorium ore . Monazite is a phosphate o

Complex compound 1- These retain their identity in solid as well as in solution State.  2- The Constituent simple salts may not be in the equimolar proportions. 3- These may have ionic as well as covalent bonds. 4- These salts don't gives the test of all the ions of their Constituents in the solution. 5- potassium ferrocyanide K4 [Fe (CN) 6] is a complex compound . Double salt  1- These retain their identity in solid but lose their identity in solution . 2- The Constituent simple salt in it are in equimolar properties. 3- These contain ionic bonds. 4- These are characterised by the complete dissociation in solution State and therefore give the test of all the ion present in them . 5- Alum is a double salt .                    K2 SO4 Al2 (SO4) 24H2O

        Lanthanide Lanthanides were first discovered in 1787 from a unusual black mineral found in ytterby , Sweden. This mineral now known as Gadolinite, and was separated later in various lanthanide element .    In 1795 , professor Gadolin obtained an impure from of yttrium oxide from the mineral . In 1803, Berzelius and Klaproth separated the cerium compound . Latter , Mosely using  X - ray spectra of the element showed that there were 14 element between Lanthanum and Hafnium . The rest of the element were latter separated from the same mineral , Gadolinite .    These elements were first classified as rare earth  due to the fact that obtained by reasonable rare minerals . But , this is misleading , since the lanthanide elements have a practically unlimited abundance . So, the term , Lanthanides was adopted , originating from the first element of the series , Lanthanum .    The Lanthanides consist of the element in the f - block of period six in the periodic table . These metals are

Complex compound 1- These retain their identity in solid as well as in solution State. 2- The Constituent simple salt may or may not be in equimolar properties . 3- These may have ionic as well as covalent bonds . 4- These salts don't give the test of all the ions of their Constituents in the solution. 5- Potassium ferrocyanide is a complex compound.

Ligand : The natural molecules that surrounded the central metal ion in a complex by coordinate linkages are known as ligands (Latin : Ligare = bind ) . Ligands are generally polar molecules or anions having at least one unshared pair of valence electrons , which they donate to the central metal atom through co - ordination bond . These Ligands have donor atoms or ions and may contain one or more unshared pair of electron , known as donor site (s) of the ligand. Depending upon the number of donor atoms the ligands may be classified as :  Unidentate or Monodentate ligands :  Ligands which can coordinate with the central metal  ion or atom through only one donor atom are known as Unidentate or Monodentate ligands. Bidentate ligands : Ligands which can co - ordinate with central metal atom through two donor atoms are known as Bidentate ligands . Polydentate ligands :  Ligands having more than two donor atoms are called polydentate ligands . These may be called as tridentate , tetradent, p

Werner's theory of coordination compounds:- In the year 1893, Alfred Warner, studied the structure of coordination compounds , such as CoCI³6NH³ and CuSO⁴ 4NH³ and proposed a theory of coordination compounds which is commonly known as  Werners coordination theory .   The major postulates of this theory are as follows - 1- A metal in coordination compound possesses two types of valence , i.e., (a) primary or principal valence which corresponds to it's oxidation number . (b) Secondary or residual or auxiliary valence which corresponds to it's coordination number.     The primary valence is ionisable where secondary valence is non - ionisable . For example , in the complex CoCI³6NH³, the primary valence of Co is three and secondary valence of Co is 6. 2- Every metal atom has a tendency to satisfy both it's primary and secondary valences. The primary valence are satisfied by negative ions where secondary valences is satisfied by -ve ions or neutral molecules .As -ve ions of

Oxidation number (ON) : It is defined as the residual charge that appears on the central atom when other atoms or ions are remove from it is a number that represents an electric charge which an atom or ion appears to possess when combined with other atom. During the calculation of the oxidation number of a metal ion or atom , following points should be taken into consideration. 1: In case of ionic complex , the sum of the charges of the Constituents is equal to the charge present on the complex ion (coordination sphere). 2: In case of neutral complexes , the sum of charge of the Constituents are equal to zero. Example : -  1- Determine the O.N of the metal ion in the following complexes: i - [Cu(CN)4]³– ii - K4[Fe(CN)6] iii - [Co(NH3)4Cl2]SO⁴ iv - Na3[Fe(C2O4)3]

Coordination number  The total amount of the Ligands (negative ions and neutral molecules) joined to the central metal atom in the complex ion (coordination sphere) is called the coordination number of the metal atom. For example :   1:- In the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], six CN- ions are present in the coordination sphere . Therefore the coordination number of Fe is 6. 2:- Similarly , in the complex [Cu(NH3)4]SO4, the coordination number of cu is 4 .      During calculating coordination number, bide dentate ligands are counted as two ligands and similarly tridentate , tetradent etc . Is counted as 3,4 etc . Ligands respectively.   For example , in the complex [Co(en)3]³+ , the coordination number of Cobalt is 6(3×2=6).

Coordination sphere                          and Ionisation sphere > In the complex , the central metal ion along with the ligand attached to it . It is always written in a square bracket [ ] . This part of the complex is called - coordination sphere The species present in the co ordination sphere are non ionisable . The portion present outside of the square bracket is called  - ionisable sphere . The species present in ionisable sphere it is ionisable.   For example - 1: In the complex [Cu ( NH3 ) 4 ] SO4 , the part [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is called coordination sphere . 2: In complex K4 [Fe(CN)6] , the part [Fe(CN)6 ⁴-] is called coordinate sphere and K+ constitutes ionisable sphere .

Chelating Ligands     When Ligands containing two or more donor atoms simultaneously coordinate to a metal ion in such a way that a ring like structure is obtained then such ligands are called chelating ligands  Application of chelates:- Common application of chelates are - (i) - some of chelates have biological importance for example : 1- Vitamin B¹² , a Cobalt complex is essential for human body . 2- Haemoglobin in red blood cells contains certain porphyrin complexes . 3-  Chlorophyll , the green pigment of plant leaf is a complex of magnesium . 4 - Metal poisoning caused by Pb,Cr,Cu,Ni,Zn, etc in our body can be removed by treating with EDTA which forms complex with the above metal and is easily excreted in the urine. (ii)- Standard EDTA, is widely used in volumetric analysis to determine the hardness of water .  (iii)- Chelates are used in analytical chemistry. (iv)- Chelating agents are added to the washing powders to improve their performance . (v)- Chelates are used in the separ

Use of numerical prefixes :- (1) :- when several ligands of the same type are present , prefixes di , tri , tetra , Penta , etc . Generally used to indicate the number of that kind of ligands . For example , for ammonia molecules it is named as diammine , for 3 ammonia it is named as tri ammine . (2):- Where the last letter of the prefix and the first letter of the ligands name or when last letter of one ligands name and first letter of of next Ligands name or when last letter of a ligands name and first letter of the central metal atom or ions are same then both the letter are retained . For example tetra ammine , hexa ammine , Here both (a) are retained. (3) :- When there are more than one poly dentate ligands or ligand of the organic species of the same kind  then prefixes like bis , tri ,tetrakis , etc . Are used in instead of tetra , tri , di , etc respectively .  Example : (A) - In case of organic ligands like methyl amine , ethyl ammine , etc prefixes like bis, tris , tetrakis e

Formula of a complex     The following rules are followed - while writing formula of complex  1:- Formula of +ve ion (cation) weather simple or complex is written followed by - ve ion (anion). 2:-  The coordination sphere is Written in the square bracket in which metal atom or ion is written first followed by ligands . 3:-  Ligands are listed in the order  - ve Ligands , natural Ligands , + ve ligands . If there are more than one ligands of any type are listed alphabetically. 4:- The charge of complex ion is calculated by knowing the oxidation state of the metal atom or ion and charges on ligands . Charge on a complex ion = oxidation state of the metal + algebraic sum of the charge present on all the ligand . 5:- The total amount of cation and anions present in one molecule of a complex can be calculated by knowing the charge carried by each ions . The cation and anions are multiplied by such whole numbers that total positive and negative charges become zero. 6:- sometime abbreviation

Geometrical isomerism:-  This type of isomerism arises in the coordination compound due to the spatial arrangements of ligands around the central metal atom ion . If the same kind of ligands occupy adjacent position to each other ; it is called a cis - isomer and if these are opposite to each other , it is called a trans isomer . This type of isomerism is also Know as cis - trans isomerism .such as isomerism is not possible for complex having coordination number ( tetrahedral complex ) 2 or 3 or 4 .  In this complex , all the coordination position are adjacent to one another . However , cis - trans isomerism is very common for coordination number 4                ( square planar complex ) and coordination number 6 ( octahedral complex ) .        A typical structure of square planar and octahedral are shown below . :- 

Optical isomerism:- Compound having same chemical composition but having difference in the plane of plane polarized light are called optical isomers and phenomenon is called optical isomerism.  These compound are not impossible on their mirror image. These are designated as d or (+) and or (-) depending upon the rotation of the plane polarized light towards left (laevorotatory) or towards right (dextro-rotatory) . Complex with coordination number 4 and 6 usually show this type of isomerism . 

Main postulates of Valanc bond theory are given below :-  1:- The Central ion in the complex makes available a suitable number of Vacant orbital for accommodation of the lone pair electron donated by the ligand to form bonds . 2:- Depending upon the total amount of bond to formed, the central metal atom or ion utilises appropriate number of atomic orbital having nearly same energy for hybridisation producing a set of equivalent orbital called hybrid orbital which gives the geometry of the complex . 3:- The empty hybrid orbital of central metal atom with the field of orbital of the ligand containing lone pair electron which result the Formation ligand to metal (L - M ) coordinate bond. 4:- Each ligand donates a pair of electron to the central metal atom of the complex . 5:- In the presence of stronger ligands , electron in central ion may be forced to pair up against the Hund's rule of the maximum multiplicity . 6:- The complex formed by the hybridisation of inner ( n___1 ) d subshe

Measurement of paramagnetism  Paramagnetism can be measured by the Guoy balance . The sample is taken in a tube suspended from the balance , and the weight of the sample is taken in the presence of the magmatic field and also in it's absence       If the substance is paramagnetic , it's weight will be more in the presence of the magmatic field being attracted by the magmatic field . The increase in the weight is a measurement of number of unpaired electron I'm the substance.     Magnetic properties of the co - compounds can be explained on the basic of   The Valence Bond Theory and The Crystal field Theory.

Oxidation test with acidified K2 Cr2 O7 solution.  1:- P alcohol on oxidation gives aldehyde which on further oxidation . Gives acid having same number of C - atoms as original alcohol. 2:- Second alcohol on oxidation gives a ketone which on drastic oxidation . Gives a mixture of acids which contains less number of c atoms as the original alcohol. 3:- Tertiary alcohol is resistant to oxidation , but on drastic oxidation . With HNO³ yield a mixture of acids and ketones each are having less number of C - atoms than the original alcohol.

Physical properties of Aromatic amines: :- Aromatic amines is a colorless liquid having a characteristics odour. :-  Due to oxidation in air they looks brown  . :- They are sparingly soluble in water but they are highly soluble in and in other organic solvent. :- On account of their high molecular masses they have relatively high boiling points. :- p - substitute anilines have the highest melting points among the other isomers because of symmetry . For example, P- Toluidine is a solid at room temperature while O- and M - Toluidines are liquids. :- The aromatic amines are highly toxic substances and are readily absorbed by skin and their vapours when inhaled for a long period prove fatal.

Acyl Halides (Acid Halides):-    Acyl halides are the derivatives of mono carbocylic acid which obtained by the replacing the general - OH of the carboxylic group by halogen X atom    Physical properties of Acyl Halides 1: State - The lower acyl chlorides are colorless liquids of mobile and the higher members are colorless solid. 2: Smell - Acyl Halides have very irritating and pungent odour. They fume in air due to the Formation of hydrochloric acid by hydrolysis. 3:  Solubility  - These are insoluble in water because they contain no hydrogen attached to oxygen . They are readily soluble in organic solvent . 4: Boiling point  - They don't form intermolecular H-bond , b- pts are lower than those of parent acid. Chemical properties of Acyl Halides or acid Halides :-  Acid halide is the most reactive among all acid derivative of carboxylic acid. This is due to the presence of highly electron ngative character of cl - atom which increase the +ve charge on carboxylic carbon by withdra

Uses of acetic acid  1:- as a solvent in the laboratory . 2:- for making perfumes ,dye stuffs and medicines . 3:- in the manufacturer of polymers such as polyvinyl acetate (plastics) , silk , cellulose acetate . 4:- in the synthesis of aluminum acetate used for making waterproof fabrics. 5:- for preparing leadtetraacetate which is used as an oxidising agent . 6 :- as vinegar for preparing pickles.

Methylated or denaturated spirit:-    Ethyl alcohol stimulates the human nervous system i.e have narcotic action and if used continuously affect the kidney and other organ . Further alcohol is generally used in several industry as a good solvent . Thus in order to make it denatured because of some poisonous substance like methanol , pyridine or acetone and some colouring materials such as copper sulphate or some dye are added which makes it color blue . Such type of alcohol called denatured alcohol or methylated spirit . It is cost effective |or cheap and generally used in industries.

Power alcohol :-     Absolute ethyl alcohol mixed with Petrol and benzene can be used as a motor fuel. This alcohol which is used for generation power is called power alcohol . A mixture of 80% gasoline (petrol) and 20% ethanol is used as internal combustion of engines . Since alcohol dose not mix with Petrol a third solvent such as benzene, ether or tetraline is used as a solvent to mix alcohol with petrol.

Absolute alcohol :-                   100% pure alcohol is known as absolute alcohol . It is prepared in the laboratory by mixing 95.6% rectified spirit with required amount of quicklime (CaO) for fev hours and then on refluxing and distilling it . Commercial , it is prepared by azeatropic distillation method . The rectified spirit is first mixed with a suitable amount of benzene and is subjected to fractional distillation . The first fraction obtained at 331.8k contain 18.5% ethanol 7.5% water and 74.1% benzene is a constant boiling mixture (ternary azeotropic solution).The second fraction obtained at 341.2k contain 32.4% of ethanol and 67.6% benzene (binary azeotrope) . Finally , absolute alcohol is obtained at 351.5k as last fraction.